101 Truths About Napoleon

Too often caricatured, the Emperor has always been the object of ridicule. On the occasion of the bicentenary of his death, controversies continued to fuel public debates. The 101 topics that follow, organized by theme, provide answers to often repeated errors…

The man

Was Napoleon born Italian?

For a long time (in fact since Chateaubriand), some people have questioned Napoleon's French nationality. According to them, the future emperor would have been born before the cession of Corsica to France, that is to say before May 15, 1768. Several documents – his rather late baptism certificate but also the certificate sent by his father to enter Brienne – attest that he was born on August 15, 1769, and therefore a subject of the King of France. The confusion also perhaps comes from the fact that he sometimes used the papers of his brother Joseph (born in 1768) to age himself, notably during his marriage to Joséphine.

What do we know about his education?

Ultimately, little about his childhood is known to us. He is said to be solitary and turbulent. He received his first French lessons from Father Rocco. At nine years old, he continued his studies on the continent, first at the college of Autun then at the military school of Brienne where he entered on May 15, 1779. Between the famous snowball fight and the mockery of his comrades, very difficult today to know what is a legend and what happened.

How does he act around women?

Napoleon left the image of a man who was not very friendly towards women, bordering on crassness. Always in a hurry, he has little time to devote to seduction. However, he knows how to be loving and attentive, sometimes clumsy. According to Josephine, he only loved two women: herself and Countess Walewska.

Does he have any quirks?

Napoleon had the habit of farting – that is to say, taking snuff – and he did it very often. His tobacco consumption, for example, amounted to 42 kg in 1808. The Emperor was also a toilet freak, constantly dousing himself with eau de Cologne. He even had special bottles made so he could slip one into his boot. He also had the habit of slashing the arms of the chairs where he sat using a small penknife. The Emperor was a bad loser and he often cheated at cards. On the boat that took him to Saint Helena, he reportedly replied to one of his playing partners, who reproached him: “I don’t cheat, I don’t leave anything to chance. »

We often talk about his eyes: what color are his eyes?

Constant writes that Napoleon had blue eyes, the secretaries Méneval and Fain say rather light gray. Everyone who has approached him agrees that he has an investigative look. Augereau (twelve years his senior), after his first meeting with Bonaparte in 1796, admits that this steely gaze scared him a little.

How many hours does he sleep per day?

“I was born and built for work,” confides Napoleon, sometimes capable of working eighteen hours a day. So he only has a little time left to sleep. The Emperor can sleep two or three hours a night. Sometimes he goes to bed around midnight, gets up two or three hours later to dictate a few letters again, then goes back to bed for an hour or two. Other times, during a day at work or even in the countryside, a nap of around twenty minutes can be enough to rest him.

Is he interested in scientific discoveries?

Napoleon was passionate about science, saying: “If I had not become general-in-chief, I would have thrown myself into the study of the exact sciences. » From Egypt and throughout his reign, he favored researchers. Thus, France is the leading scientific power in the world. The list is long of mathematicians, biologists, naturalists, chemists, or physicists who dominate their subject. Among these: Laplace, Chaptal, Berthollet, Daubenton, Cuvier.

Does he enjoy theater?

Napoleon visited the theater 682 times during the fifteen years of his reign. In total, he attended 374 plays, including twelve times at Cinna. The Emperor meets several times with the actor Talma, to whom he even advises on playing the role of Nero in Britannicus. Napoleon was so passionate about the theater that he had one built in each of his residences. That of Malmaison, built in 1802, was inaugurated with The Barber of Seville by Beaumarchais, performed by a group of amateurs including Hortense who plays the role of Rosine.

Did he create the Comédie-Française?

It is often said that Napoleon signed the decree reorganizing the Comédie-Française in provisions still in force today. It is, in fact, much more likely that this decree was signed in Paris. Thierry Lentz explains it by citing two initials on the original text preserved in the National Archives: “The first which bears “Approved. Napoleon” was crossed out and replaced by another: “Approved in Moscow on October 15, 1812.” This minute is further accompanied by a note from a secretary: “The Emperor intends that the decree be dated from Moscow”. » Why this lie? Quite simply because “the Emperor wanted to show that he could take care of the affairs of France, even 2,500 km from Paris”.

When and for what reason did his biggest tantrum occur?

Napoleon is also known for his sudden and violent outbursts. If some anger is very real and corresponds to his character, others are feigned, to impress the person he is talking to. The best known – and undoubtedly very real – is the one he “stings” against Talleyrand. Indeed, while Napoleon was in Spain, he had become closer to Fouché and was plotting a possible succession by Murat. On January 28, 1809, after a council and in front of witnesses, Napoleon attacked his former Minister of Foreign Relations: “You are a thief, a coward, a man without faith, you do not believe in God…” The tone rises more and more, the reproaches accumulate and the diatribe ends with the phrase, which has become famous: “You are shit in a silk stocking! » Talleyrand, impassive, mutters: “What a shame that such a great man should be so poorly brought up…”

What are his favorite foods?

All witnesses attest: that Napoleon did not linger at the table. Lunch is generally dispatched in fifteen minutes, sometimes a little longer when he receives distinguished guests or if he is with family. When it comes to gastronomy, the Emperor has simple tastes: he likes chicken in all its forms, in particular the famous "Marengo chicken" (of uncertain origin) and grilled mutton breast, and appreciates boiled meats, lentils, and beans, loves bread. He most often accompanies his meals with a glass of Chambertin, cut with iced water.

What was Napoleon's relationship with his brothers?

He sometimes had tumultuous relationships with his brothers but, for him, family is sacred. He is very close to his elder Joseph, who nevertheless proves to be very mediocre in the missions entrusted to him. Lucien, the third of the siblings, is the rebel who does not obey the Emperor. He dares to marry Alexandrine de Bleschamp without his brother's consent. Louis followed his brother in 1794 but became angry with him about the blockade which ruined Holland of which he was king. Finally, Jérôme, the youngest, is perhaps the least close to Napoleon. He hardly appreciates him but attributes the throne of Westphalia to him.

What are his readings?

Napoleon always loved reading. From his childhood, he “devoured” the classics, notably Plutarch, Tacitus, Livy, Virgil, and Homer. He also likes the tragedians Racine and Corneille but also authors closer to his time like Voltaire. His readings are eclectic and he takes notes on everything. “Reading without a pencil is just daydreaming,” he believes.

Does he like music?

Undeniably, and contrary to what is often said, Napoleon loved music. He even said that it is art that has the most influence on passions. Although the Emperor sings out of tune and does not play an instrument, he loves Italian opera, which he discovered during his Italian campaigns. He organized and promoted the Paris Opera, which in 1804 became the Imperial Academy of Music. The Neapolitan Giovanni Paisiello and the French Étienne Nicolas Méhul are among his favorite composers. The latter is even one of the first civilians to receive the Knight's Cross of the Legion of Honor.

What are his relationships with Elisa, Pauline, and Caroline?

Among his three sisters, Napoleon had a preference for Pauline. He forgives him for all his mistakes. She, for her part, admires her brother and has boundless affection for him. Always faithful, she is the only one of the Bonapartes (with Madame Mère) to visit her brother on the island of Elba.

Was Napoleon a good mathematician?

Concerning his education, the only certainties are that he is very interested in history and mathematics, subjects in which he excels. On October 17, 1784, at the age of fifteen, he entered the Military School of Paris where he was noted for his gifts in mathematics. In ten months, he mastered Étienne Bezout's treatise, while others studied it in three years. His abilities in this area will naturally direct him towards artillery.

Was he a Freemason?

The First Empire was a time when Freemasonry was reborn, both civil and military. Napoleon was surrounded by Freemasons and first and foremost Cambacérès who became from 1804 the great administrator of the Grand Orient of France, reorganized and the first French obedience. The Emperor's brothers, Joseph and Louis, are the grandmaster and deputy grandmaster of the order. However, there is no trace of any initiation from Napoleon. The Emperor encourages Freemasonry because the lodges must above all be places of reconciliation around him.

Is hygiene one of its main concerns?

According to Constant, his valet, Napoleon is very meticulous about cleanliness. As soon as he wakes up, he takes a bath, even if, as is often the case, he has already taken one in the middle of the night. He is then rubbed vigorously with eau de Cologne. He shaves himself and cleans his teeth with a brush, dipped in an opiate of a special composition, then gets dressed by his valet.

What outfit does he wear in the campaign?

As for his eating habits, Napoleon liked simplicity and sobriety in his clothing. In his palaces as well as in the countryside, he remains attached to the outfit of colonel of the Guard horse hunters, as if to show that he remains close to his soldiers. He wears an eternal black cocked hat adorned with a tricolor cockade and, of course, the gray frock coat.

Did Napoleon really love Marie Walewska?

Even if Marie Walewska was thrown into the arms of Napoleon at the beginning of 1807 by Poniatowski, who thought he would thus influence the fate of Poland, the two lovers maintained a sincere romantic connection. After Friedland, Napoleon wrote to him: “My joy would be complete if you were here, but I have you in my heart. » The couple met again in 1808, then after Wagram. Marie gave birth to a son in 1810. She was one of the few to have visited the Emperor on the island of Elba.

Did he consider Hortense his daughter?

If Napoleon feels a lot of tenderness for Hortense, he is no less an authoritarian father-in-law. Joséphine's daughter frequented high consular society in the 1800s and fell madly in love with Duroc. But the First Consul, with the support of his wife Joséphine, forced him to marry his brother Louis in 1802. This forced marriage quickly proved to be a failure. Hortense, however, proved faithful to her father-in-law during the Hundred Days and was forced, for this reason, to go to Switzerland in 1817.

What father is he?

He was a father three times. His first son, Charles Léon, was born on December 13, 1806; The mother is Éléonore Denuelle de la Plaigne, reader of her sister Caroline. The second, Alexandre, was born on May 2, 1810, from his love affair with Marie Walewska. Finally, the third, the only legitimate one, was born on March 20, 1811. The images showing Napoleon with the King of Rome are numerous: he is shown tender, playing with the child, often moved. However, he never neglected his other two sons and always cared about them. If Charles Léon had a tumultuous life and squandered what his father had left him, Alexandre undertook a brilliant political career.

Does he like hunting?

As a young man, Napoleon had little interest in hunting. The emperor, however, entrusted the office of the grand huntsman to Marshal Berthier. It was in 1809 that he began to hunt very regularly, particularly on his return from the Austrian campaign. Furthermore, and as was customary in the 18th century, welcoming a distinguished guest was often accompanied by a hunting trip. In this activity, it must be admitted that the Emperor appears rather clumsy and unlucky. He injured several of his companions with a few unfortunate rifle shots.

Why is the King of Rome called Napoleon II when he never reigned?

At the end of the Hundred Days, on the act of abdication, Napoleon wrote: “My political life is over and I proclaim my son, under the title of Napoleon II, Emperor of the French. » This proclamation is approved by the House of Representatives and the House of Peers. However, Fouché, responsible in principle for presiding over a regency council, is not concerned about this four-year-old child who already resides in Austria. Napoleon II was therefore never officially proclaimed emperor, having only had this title for a few days. But it is nevertheless for this reason that Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte took the name Napoleon III.

Could Napoleon have escaped from Saint Helena?

Indeed, several escape attempts were prepared by his supporters. Octave Aubry evokes the buccaneer Laffitte who sets up an expedition but has to give up after losing six ships in a cyclone. The most serious attempt was the work of Nicolas Girod, mayor of New Orleans, a fervent supporter of Napoleon. In 1821, he built a spacious house in his town where he intended to welcome his prestigious escapee. He then arms a fast clipper, the Séraphine. This ship is about to set sail when news of the Emperor's death breaks, destroying the project. It should also be remembered that Pauline was worried about having tried to repatriate her brother from Saint Helena.

Is he a good rider?

Like all officers of the time, Napoleon used to ride horses. However, he is not a very good rider. Quite brutal and only knowing how to gallop, this caused him some serious falls. But his great strength is his endurance: he is capable of tiring several horses in a day and traveling between eighty and one hundred kilometers.

Why is he putting his hand in his vest?

Napoleon is recognizable by his cocked hat, his gray frock coat and his hand slipped into his waistcoat. It has often been said that this attitude was due to his stomach aches. In reality, this is not the case. At the time, on the one hand, it was unseemly to let your arms hang along your body and, on the other hand, pants and breeches did not have pockets. It is therefore common for men to put a hand in their vest. Napoleon – his portraits show – is no exception.

Was Napoleon short?

He is five feet, two inches and three lines tall, or 1.686 m. Which, for the time, did not make him a small man. The average height of French people is in fact around 1.60 m.

Did it transform Paris?

Napoleon launched major projects intended to improve the daily life of the 600,000 Parisians. He was particularly concerned with water distribution, having the Ourcq canal dug in 1808 to bring its water to the capital. Fountains were created, including those of Sèvres and Châtelet. To save space, he ordered cemeteries to be created outside the city. These are those of Père Lachaise, Montparnasse and Montmartre. New streets are open, like those of the Pyramids or Mondovi, and many others are paved. In 1801, Napoleon ordered the construction of three new bridges: those of Arts, Austerlitz, and Iéna. Parisian urban planning owes him a lot.

What are the monuments in Paris erected to the glory of the Emperor?

Napoleon did not neglect to have monuments built. He restored the Tuileries, to which the Carrousel triumphal arch serves as the entrance. Built between 1806 and 1808, it celebrates the victory of Austerlitz. The construction of a second triumphal arch, Place de l’Etoile, began in 1806 but was not completed until thirty years later. On Place Vendôme, a column, identical to that of Trajan, is raised to the glory of the Grande Armée. It is covered with bronze from cannons taken from the enemy and topped with a statue of Napoleon as Roman emperor.

Does he believe in God?

In most of his letters, Napoleon ended with: “May God have you in his holy guard. » Likewise, in his will, he affirms “to die in the apostolic and Roman religion”. He therefore positions himself as a Christian. But as Thierry Lentz writes, “Napoleon favored the social and political role of religion, leaving aside his convictions. A few weeks after Brumaire, he declared to the Council of State: “It was by becoming a Catholic that I ended the Vendée war, by becoming a Muslim that I established myself in Egypt, by becoming an ultramontane that I have won minds in Italy. If I governed a people of Jews, I would re-establish the temple of Solomon.” God is an intimate affair for him, and it is probable that he had faith. The role of the Church lies with the State. »

Is this his body resting at Les Invalides?

The remains of Napoleon were placed under the Dome on December 15, 1840. For around forty years, some have argued that it was not him who was in the tomb but his butler Cipriani, who died in 1818. The substitution would have taken place between 1821 and 1840, at the instigation of the British. Napoleon's body was buried in a secret location in Westminster Abbey. This fanciful theory is based on the fact that in Saint Helena, Napoleon was placed in four nested coffins but Marchand, in his diary, only mentions three. However, in 1840, in Paris, there were indeed four nested coffins, which this time was confirmed by the former valet.

Did some of the Emperor’s projects come to fruition?

In 1810, at the height of his power, he planned to build a sumptuous palace, for himself but also and above all for his descendants. At the beginning of 1811, he entrusted the project to architects Charles Percier and Pierre-François-Léonard Fontaine. The idea is to beautify the Bois de Boulogne and build a gigantic palace for the King of Rome on the top of Chaillot Hill. During 1811, plots of land and houses were purchased by the State. However the work took a long time and was slowed down by lack of resources, particularly after the defeats of 1813. At the end of the Empire, the project was completely abandoned.

What is the most visited Napoleonic monument today?

There are more than four thousand recorded Napoleonic places in the world. There is not a history or fine arts museum that does not offer a painting linked to the Empire. However, the most visited Napoleonic place is undoubtedly the tomb of the Emperor at Les Invalides which welcomes (during the usual period) a million and a half visitors.

What was his strangest project for Paris?

In these beautification projects, Napoleon did not forget the Place de la Bastille. He first intended to build a triumphal arch there then, on February 9, 1810, decided by decree to build a vast fountain in the center of the square. This would have “the shape of a cast bronze elephant with cannons taken from the insurgent Spaniards. This elephant would be in charge of a tower and would be as the Ancients used it: water would spring from its trunk. » Only the foundations, designed by Célérier and Alavoine, will be built.

What exactly did Napoleon die of?

Doctor Alain Goldcher, in his book Au chevet des Bonaparte, concludes his chapter on the death of Napoleon: “[…] A doctor of the 21st century would fill out the death certificate of Napoleon Bonaparte as follows: […] Initial cause [of death ]: gastrorrhagia (hemorrhage from the stomach) of Cruveilher characterized by a multitude of small ulcerations of the gastric mucosa, a sort of chronic gastritis responsible for repeated microbleeds from 1815 to 1821, causing massive blood loss but progressive. »

The military

Where does his nickname “Little Corporal” come from?

It was on the evening of the victory at Lodi, May 10, 1796, that Bonaparte was baptized by his soldiers. Indeed, having been very close to them throughout the battle, some of the oldest in the army met in council and decided to promote their commander to this rank to clearly show that, from now on, he is one of them. This mark of respect was transmitted a little later to the Foreign Legion and the marine troops who still today exceptionally award this rank to a general officer, who is not part of their corps but has won their esteem. .

Did Bonaparte plunder Italy (including its works of art) during the two campaigns?

General de Pommereul, at the end of his work Campaign of General Buonaparte in Italy during Years IV and V of the French Republic (published for the first time in 1797), gives the list of works of art brought back from Italy. It is indeed impressive: more than sixty sculptures by masters and, for paintings, nine Raphaels, eighteen Perugins, three Guercino, one Caravaggio, two Annibale Carracci, one Titian, one Poussin, etc. Furthermore, precious manuscripts were removed from the great libraries of Modena, Rome, and Venice, in particular the Ulisse Aldrovandi herbarium (sixteen volumes from the 16th century, the oldest known). If these treasures were indeed plundered, we must not forget that it was normal at the time to make the vanquished “pay”. The Romans themselves took from the Greeks many of the statues which the French then took from them. In addition, Bonaparte intended these works of art for French museums and the Institute.

What is the benefit of the Egyptian campaign?

The 1798 expedition pursued two objectives: to establish French domination in the Mediterranean and to cut off the route to India from the English, thus depriving them of essential economic resources. The defeat and return to France of the last soldiers in 1801 annihilated all hopes of achieving these goals. However, this campaign enters into Napoleonic legend, and from this setback, Napoleon will make it a success.

Is the plan to invade England realistic?

The Boulogne camp, between Utrecht and Montreuil-sur-Mer, brought together more than 150,000 men from 1803 to 1805. Colossal efforts were made to build a landing fleet: nearly a thousand flat-bottomed boats and 750 barges were launched. But for this project to succeed, the French fleet must dethrone the Royal Navy. However, this blocks the main French ships in European ports. In England, the threat is taken seriously. The British hastened to form the third coalition which would divert the Grande Armée from the Channel coasts and ultimately lead to the victory of Austerlitz. The naval defeat at Trafalgar on October 21, 1805, definitively put an end to the plan to invade the island.

When it comes to military strategy, what are its influences?

Among his numerous readings, Napoleon was interested in military and strategic writings. He studied the principles of artillery, the art of siege, Machiavelli, and the stories of the campaigns of Frederick the Great – whom he admired. He also meditated at his grave after his victory over Prussia, in October 1806. But the reading that influenced him the most was undoubtedly The General Essay on Tactics by Jacques-Antoine-Hippolyte de Guibert, which advocated already the offensive armies and the divisional principle.

What is the greatest victory won by Napoleon?

Without a doubt it is Austerlitz and for several reasons. First of all, it is the battle where the Emperor's qualities as a strategist are demonstrated. Then, it takes place one year to the day after the coronation, which makes it a prime propaganda argument. Finally, it is a total victory over two dominant powers in Europe – Russia and Austria. The 1806 campaign against Prussia is also exemplary in terms of military strategy and is still studied today in military schools. In the space of a few weeks, an entire army, among the most battle-hardened, was virtually destroyed.

Was the Spanish Campaign his biggest military mistake?

If wanting to enter Spain to impose a blockade on England, or at least hinder its trade, is not necessarily an error, interfering in the affairs of Spanish royalty, imposing a French king, and wanting to introduce principles of the French Revolution in a country dominated by the nobility and the clergy are one of them. This is without counting on the reaction of the Spanish people. Then, trying to maintain oneself in a hostile country actively supported by the English proved to be a major mistake.

How did it revolutionize 18th-century military strategy?

Its entire strategy is based on the articulation between the dispersed marching movement and the concentrated battle system, the objective being to be the strongest at a given point and at a precise moment. The concentration thus obtained, using very rapid movements, contrasts with the slowness of the adversaries: this is why it could be said that the Emperor won the battles with the legs of his soldiers. We can summarize his strategy in three rules: excessive offensive, search for engagement, and exploitation of victory. It’s a sort of “blitzkrieg” avant la lettre. In this, his strategy completely revolutionized that of the Ancien Régime.

What books does he take while campaigning?

From 1809, Napoleon increasingly thought about taking a campaign library with him. He therefore called on his librarian Antoine Barbier and asked him to plan a set of 3,000 volumes! This library is only ready for the Russian campaign and includes works on topography, Russian history, geography, and reports on Russian forests, marshes and rivers. This disappeared during the retreat, burned or pillaged.

What role did the Bulletins of the Grande Armée play?

In periodicals reporting the activity of the troops, we find descriptions of all the battles and often laudatory comments from soldiers who have succeeded in a brilliant action. The Bulletins are published in the official organ of the regime, the Moniteur Universel. During campaigns, copies are posted on the walls of public buildings. Napoleon controlled the entire editorial process, transforming it into a formidable communication and propaganda tool. The soldiers are not fooled and often use the expression “liar as a Bulletin”.

Who is his favorite officer?

Napoleon was not necessarily “tender” in his judgment, particularly of his marshals, in the Saint Helena Memorial. Several, like Marmont, Mortier, and even Murat are even described as “traitors”. The Emperor respects the leadership qualities of Masséna or those of Davout as a boatman. He admires the bravery of Ney, whom he nicknames the "bravest of the brave", but the one he considers his friend, the only one who speaks to him on familiar terms, is Lannes, whose death he mourns in 1809. He is very affected, four years later, by the death of Bessières, then that of Duroc.

Did Napoleon abandon the navy?

From the beginning of the Consulate, he understood that he had to defend access to his coastline and prepare the reconstruction of a fleet capable of fighting the Royal Navy. Old ports were rehabilitated such as Toulon (largely destroyed in 1793), Boulogne, and Rochefort. Work on the port of Cherbourg, undertaken under Louis XVI, resumed in 1802. The following year, Bonaparte ordered the construction of a first-class port and, in 1804, the dike was completed and a battery of twenty pieces was installed for the protection. A little later, the Emperor launched a vast plan to build arsenals integrating Genoa and Savona (Mediterranean side), Venice and Ragusa (Adriatic side), Ostend, Newport, and especially Antwerp (on the North Sea). But even if 77 ships and 79 frigates were launched from imperial ports between 1804 and 1814, the French navy could never surpass the British.

During the Hundred Days, is he still a great strategist?

If, without a doubt, Napoleon retained his abilities, it was his environment that changed. The army of 1815 is no longer that of 1805: its soldiers are no longer as seasoned, and its officers – too young – lack experience. His general officers are weary and less inclined to obey him blindly. And then, his adversaries learned to fight him: they are now the ones who have hardened and the English army now proves superior to the French army.

Could the defeat at Waterloo have been avoided?

This question is a matter of urgency. By escaping from the island of Elba, Napoleon suspected that he would create a new coalition. This, even more powerful, leaves him no chance, and, even if Waterloo had been avoided or even won, this would not have prevented a long war, necessarily murderous, and whose outcome would not have been different.

When in the countryside, how does he travel?

When the Emperor goes on the campaign, the crew that follows him is made up of two cars. One contains his papers, maps, and books; the other is reserved for food service. Near the battlefield, the Emperor's three tents were erected: his own, that of the officers of the Imperial Household, and that of Major-General Berthier. The Emperor's accommodation occupies two rooms: the study and the bedroom. In the first, the cards are laid out on a large table. And in the bedroom, we install the Emperor's bed.

Does he bivouac among his soldiers?

Napoleon is indeed close to his soldiers. He can walk through the bivouacs, share a potato or wash, and then shave in their midst. The numerous engravings and paintings have widely disseminated this image. However, most of the time, Napoleon still had great comfort, which was taken care of by the administration of the Emperor's Household. Pierre Branda showed that at the start of the Russian campaign, the Emperor's Household transported 3,464 bottles of wine and liqueurs, 155 kg of Gruyère, 9 bags of coffee, 230 liters of vinegar, 36 kg of chocolate, etc..

The politician

Did Napoleon concentrate all the powers?

Even if the Emperor's extraordinary work abilities may give the image of a statesman who "can do anything", Napoleon always knew how to surround himself with competent men. Collaborators like Cambacérès, Mollien, Fouché, Berthier (and many others) were able to carry out the required reforms. Among these, we can cite Jean-Étienne-Marie Portalis, one of the main drafters of the Civil Code.

Does it bring together a real council of ministers?

Contrary to popular belief, he does not govern alone. Even if the final decisions are his, he knew, and this is also one of his strengths, to surround himself with competent and effective ministers. Without really talking about the council of ministers, among those whom Napoleon regularly questioned were Cambacérès archchancellor of the Empire, Gaudin minister of Finance (from 1800 to 1814), Talleyrand minister of External Relations (and very influential, at least until 1807 ), Fouché Minister of Police, Berthier Minister of War, Decrès Minister of the Navy (in office for fourteen years) and Régnier Minister of Justice (for thirteen years).

Did the First Consul put an end to the Revolution?

The proclamation of the constitution of the year viii, which established the Consulate, ends with these words: “The Revolution is fixed on the principles which began it. It's finished. » According to Thierry Lentz, “in the language of the time, finished meant as much finished as perfect. Consequently, it was not a question of denying the Revolution, but of recognizing its limits “in the principles which had begun it”, those of 1789. […] If we depart from the usual periodization, after the Constituent, the Legislative, the Convention and the Directory, the Consulate and at least part of the Empire should therefore constitute a fifth period of the Revolution, pursuing and defending the principles [of 1789]. »

How did Napoleon judge his ministers?

Working with the Emperor is certainly not easy. Everyone, whoever they may be, is entitled, one day or another, to imperial reprimands, either in writing or during an interview where it is more prudent not to respond. However, the longevity of some of them proves that Napoleon recognized their skills. Decrès, often described as incapable by the Emperor, held the portfolio of the Navy for fourteen years, Clarke, often reprimanded, remained in the War for nine years, Hugues-Bernard Maret, also often mistreated, appeared in the government in various positions of 1804 at the end of the Empire.

Who was his main advisor?

The one who was undoubtedly Napoleon's closest collaborator was Jean-Jacques-Régis de Cambacérès, second consul then archchancellor of the Empire until 1814. His legal skills and his great political sense quickly made him number two in the 'Empire. A tireless worker, with unwavering loyalty, Napoleon maintained absolute trust with him, to the point that he entrusted him with power when he was on campaign.

Does Marengo's victory constitute a founding act of the regime?

The victory of June 14, 1800, but also that of Moreau at Hohenlinden on December 3, put France in a strong position for the peace which would be signed at Lunéville on February 9, 1801. This of course strengthened the powers of the First Consul. With this victory, Bonaparte established himself in the eyes of all of Europe as head of state and as war leader.

Without this victory for Marengo, would he have been removed from power?

Several attempts were considered by Fouché and Talleyrand. The possibility of the possible defeat of Bonaparte's troops in Italy gives rise to different scenarios, including that of replacing the First Consul with another soldier (Bernadotte or Murat). But with victory finally achieved, the conspirators go no further.

Was the creation of the Empire nobility a mistake?

Permanently created by decree of March 1, 1808, it is intended, like the Legion of Honor, to reward any citizen who, through their military or civil services, has contributed to the greatness of the Nation. It is therefore not a question of “nobility” in the sense understood by the Ancien Régime. But if Napoleon thought that it could constitute a valuable bulwark for the imperial regime, the facts proved him wrong.

Was he the precursor of a united Europe?

Napoleon only speaks of a “united Europe” in his dictations to Las Cases on Saint Helena, where he said: “I would have wanted to make each of these peoples the same body of the nation […]. There is no other great balance possible in Europe than the agglomeration and confederation of great peoples. » However, nothing in his actions confirms this desire. In this, he is a man of his time.

Why did he restore slavery?

Slavery was abolished by the Convention in 1794 and Napoleon did not intend to reestablish it at least until the Peace of Amiens which signed peace with England. The hope of a resumption of colonial trade and pressure from colonial businessmen made him change his mind. On May 20, 1802, a law maintained slavery where it had never been abolished, in the West Indian colonies occupied by the English and in those located east of the Cape of Good Hope where the law had not been abolished. not been applied. This law is considered today as one of the main faults of the Emperor. However, it must be emphasized that Napoleon prohibited the slave trade by decree of March 28, 1815.

Did he want to disseminate the Civil Code?

For Napoleon, the territorial expansion of the Empire was motivated by two fundamental principles: reducing England's zone of influence by creating an offensive base against that country and then propagating "the French model" both the social and policy. The Emperor thinks that France must export its ideal from the Revolution to a Europe still dominated by old feudal rules. Symbol and instrument of this modernity, the Civil Code is applied throughout the Empire and distributed in numerous States: Naples, Confederation of the Rhine, Westphalia, Grand Duchy of Warsaw...

What place did women occupy under the Empire?

The Civil Code of 1804 enshrined the inferiority of women in the law. She is deprived of legal rights and remains subject to the authority of the father or husband. We can, however, note that numerous articles concerning the rights or rather the "non-rights" of women remained valid until recent times, proving that Napoleon was not the only so-called "misogynist" at the head of the 'State…

What achievement is he most proud of?

Napoleon himself wrote: “By its simplicity, the Civil Code has done more good in France than the mass of laws that preceded it. » In the aftermath of Brumaire’s coup d’état, Cambacérès was responsible for drafting a “code”. The latter brought together a commission composed of Portalis, Tronchet, Malleville, and Bigot de Préameneu. On March 21, 1804, the thirty-six laws, bringing together 2,280 articles, were promulgated.

Did he want to unify Italy?

On March 17, 1805, Napoleon proclaimed himself king of Italy. Eugène de Beauharnais was named viceroy on July 7. Thus, the Italian Republic disappeared in favor of a kingdom. Little by little, it expanded from the Venetian province, Istria and Friuli. The territory is also divided into twenty-four departments administered on the French model and the country provides contingents for the Grande Armée which in 1812 formed the 4th corps commanded by Eugène. Furthermore, Napoleon named Murat king of Naples on August 1, 1808. He thus intended to control all of Italy, which must serve his wishes. He has no intention of unifying

Italy, undoubtedly unlike Murat with whom the break will be inevitable.

Why did he want to be crowned emperor?

Finding himself at the crossroads of two eras, Napoleon wanted to establish his power with a title accepted by his time and where ancient references were numerous. By the constitution of the year xii, he became “Emperor of the Republic”, thus recalling the two Roman eras – the Republic and the Empire. The term "Republic", however, disappeared in 1807 in favor of the "Emperor of the French". The presence of the Pope is also desired to provide religious support.

Did it promote education?

By a decree signed on 11 Floréal year x (May 1, 1802), Bonaparte created high schools. “They are one of the essential cogs by which the State wants to train its elites,” writes Jacques-Olivier Boudon. They provide serious and comprehensive training for future civil servants and officers. Of course, they are paid. But, from the outset, the most deserving children of destitute officers can benefit from a scholarship. » One of our strongest institutions can lead young people to the baccalaureate. This exam, instituted in 1808, allows access to special schools, which provide training for careers in law, medicine, and the army.

Did it expand universities?

For the Emperor, France's position in Europe depends on advanced and appropriate education. By particularly targeting higher education, it allows the student world, which is almost non-existent, to take off. Under the Empire, there were three faculties of medicine and nine faculties of law, spread across French territory. Two-thirds of the students are based in Paris and in particular in the Latin Quarter.

The diplomat

Could the peace concluded by the Treaty of Amiens be lasting?

After the victories of Marengo and Hohenlinden, the Austrians signed the Treaty of Lunéville on February 9, 1801. The Kingdom of Naples followed a few weeks later as did Russia on October 10. England finds itself isolated and William Pitt is replaced by Henry Addington. The latter wanted peace and the Congress of Amiens began on December 5, 1801, bringing together France, Spain, the Batavian Republic, and the United Kingdom. The treaty was signed on March 25, 1802. But the rise in power of France and the establishment of Bonaparte as consul for life worried England, which sought to form a new coalition. This peace, too fragile, only lasted thirteen months. Great Britain declared war on France on May 18, 1802.

What objectives did Napoleon pursue in creating the Confederation of the Rhine?

By creating the Confederation of the Rhine on July 12, 1806, of which he was "the protector", Napoleon wished to establish French preponderance in this part of Europe where many states were favorable to France such as Bavaria, the Grand Duchy of Baden or Saxony. Ultimately, this creation undoubtedly maintained the division of Germany more than it promoted its unity.

Why didn't he favor Poland more, which he had won over?

In 1807, the Poles welcomed the French as liberators and more than 70,000 of them served in the Grande Armée. However, Napoleon wanted to spare the three powers concerned by this part of Europe, a territory that they shared at the end of the 18th century: Prussia, Austria, and especially Russia. Thus, the Emperor only created the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, which frustrated many supporters of the Kingdom of Poland. He thus deprives himself of a major ally, but could he have obtained more?

Did Napoleon seek peace alliances in Europe?

During his reign, the Emperor effectively sought to ally himself with the main European powers. He did so in Tilsit in 1807 with Tsar Alexander, then through his marriage to Marie-Louise of Austria three years later. However, if the first objective is to obtain peace in continental Europe, the second – and undoubtedly the main – is to be able to fight on all points (both economic, political, and military) the real enemy of the Empire: England.

What were the relations between Napoleon and Tsar Alexander?

Despite the demonstrations of friendship and the alliance between the two countries at Tilsit in July 1807, the tsar never liked his French counterpart and was always suspicious of him. In 1811, Alexander distanced himself more and more from his ally and, notably under pressure from Russian traders, opened the Baltic ports to English ships, which sealed the break with France. The Emperor is furious and his anger is expressed on August 15, 1811, against Ambassador Kourakine: “You are arming yourself against me who is your ally and all this for whom? For a few smugglers…! »

Why did the Emperor of Austria marry his daughter to his former adversary?

When Napoleon married the Archduchess on April 1, 1810, he was able to declare: “I am marrying a belly. » Besides the fact that it must give an heir to the Empire, this union allows France to ally itself with a powerful and prestigious monarchy. For their part, Emperor Francis I and his Chancellor Metternich were favorable to this union. It should be noted that this marriage was accompanied by negotiations which resulted in the remission of war compensation owed by Austria and in commercial agreements. In any case, Austria was not in a position of strength at that time and it would be time for Francis I to reverse his alliance.

Was accepting the Pleiswitz truce a mistake?

The German campaign of 1813 was interrupted on June 4 by the armistice of Pleiswitz, at the request of Russia and Prussia after the French victories of Lützen and Bautzen. Napoleon accepts and Austria offers to serve as mediator. To make peace, France must abandon the territories east of the Rhine, Holland, Spain, and a large part of Italy. Napoleon hesitates and the Allies drag out the negotiations until August 10, when the truce must end... on July 20. The time necessary for the Russian and Prussian armies to strengthen and for Austria to prepare for its entry into the war against France. Napoleon ultimately refuses and the war resumes. Certainly, the French army had won two important victories but it is also exhausted, and refusing the truce would only have delayed the deadline.

Did the Congress of Vienna destroy Napoleon’s work?

Opened in November 1814, it lasted eight months and ended with the signing of a final act, on June 9, 1815, a few days before Waterloo. France is represented by Talleyrand. The objective is to redesign Europe and legitimize all the sovereigns of Europe. But the result goes beyond this, the participants encouraged all States to adopt a constitution and create an embryo of international law. Thus, the contributions of the Revolution and the Empire were not rejected.

The Economist

What is Napoleon's record in the field of the economy?

Without really talking about economic policy, its attention is mainly focused on three areas: strategic activities, meeting the needs of the population, and foreign trade. The Emperor considers this last sector as an element of the power of the State. He showed himself to be protectionist, notably by establishing the continental blockade, declaring: “My principle is: France above all. »

Did the Empire experience economic crises?

Napoleonic protectionism first enabled significant national economic development during the first years of the reign. However, from 1810, the blockade caused a dramatic drop in exports and led to difficulties in supplying raw materials. For some economists, this would be the first modern crisis of overproduction.

Which sector is most affected by the blockade?

The crisis of 1810-1811 mainly affected the textile industry, which was booming at the time. The Dollfuss factories in Mulhouse, Ternaux, and Richard-Lenoir in Paris, as well as Oberkampf in Jouy-en-Josas, were hit hard. The latter, for example, was produced in 1805 for its printed cotton, the famous toiles de Jouy, more than 1.7 cells – 1 ell is equivalent to 130 cm. The factory thus found itself in 1810 with a considerable stock that it could not sell and was experiencing production difficulties due to the lack of raw materials.

How did Napoleon intervene in the event of an economic crisis?

As soon as events occur that put the French population in difficulty, Napoleon takes matters in hand. Thus in 1810, when the crisis hit the textile industry, the 12,000 workers employed by Richard-Lenoir were threatened with unemployment. The Emperor first planned, for the entire sector, to develop cotton cultivation in the southern departments then he pays, with the agreement of Mollien, Minister of the Public Treasury, nearly 2 million francs in aid to the industrialist, then the main French cotton trader.

Could the continental blockade succeed?

Overall it was rather well observed and hampered British trade. What the Emperor perhaps considered less were the consequences for France. Economists were still few at the dawn of the 19th century and the principles of modern economics were still little known.

Did Napoleon have a social policy in favor of employment?

When, in 1810, the triple industrial, financial, and freight crisis threatened to put tens of thousands of workers out of work, Napoleon once again ordered the State to intervene. According to Thierry Lentz, “The Emperor gave the order to double and then triple the sums made available to the charitable committees, to distribute free food and to launch a public works program – 160 million francs of public money were invested in 1811 alone. His aides-de-camp traveled the territory to verify the implementation of his directives and the

proper use of funds. »

What were the consequences of the English maritime blockade?

From the Consulate, Great Britain prohibited any relations between France and its colonies, which it occupied one after the other. France's supply of colonial foodstuffs became almost zero. Among these commodities, sugar is the most important and is becoming overpriced. Bonaparte then decides to take measures to find a replacement product. After several years of research, at the beginning of 1812, the chemist Chaptal and the industrialist Delessert managed to produce sugar loaves made from beets. From this date, distilleries flourished in France: there were more than two hundred at the fall of the Empire and France would no longer need to import cane sugar.

Did Napoleon expand internal trade?

Among the means of communication strengthening the unity of the Empire, the sovereign favored roads. These allow the export of French products and the rapid movement of troops. By decree of December 16, 1811, these “imperial” roads were classified into three categories: fourteen first class, 13 seconds, and more than two hundred third class. This desire to improve the quality of the road network resulted in the creation of the Corps of Bridges and Roads Engineers in 1804.

Aside from roads, what other means of communication have been developed?

To promote trade, the Emperor ordered the resumption of work on drilling canals which were particularly useful for the transport of heavy materials. Work on the Saint-Quentin canal resumed in 1802 and was completed in 1810. This connected the Somme, the Escaut and the Oise, coal from the north now supplying the capital. Other canals were started: that from the Rhône to the Rhine from 1808, that from Nantes to Brest from 1811, while Bruges was connected to Breskens the previous year.

Did he pursue a policy of major works?

In the Great Empire, Napoleon sought to facilitate trade: roads, canals, and ports were built, modernized, and enlarged. The development of this vast territory responds to two imperatives. The first of a military nature: being able to defend French possessions at any time against an enemy attack coming from England or Russia because the troops must be able to move quickly on good, well-maintained roads. The second is economic: since the continental blockade of November 1806, it is necessary to circulate more and more goods in all the territories controlled by France and thus prevent British smuggling.

Has he demonstrated innovation in urban planning?

The main creation remains Napoléon-Vendée (today La Roche-sur-Yon). Napoleon chose this place in the heart of Vendée because the department was emerging from ten years of civil war and he wanted to establish a new prefecture there. On May 25, 1804, he decided to found a new town, which would accommodate 15,000 inhabitants and would be based on the old town of La Roche-sur-Yon. A symbol of reconciliation and economic renewal, the city grew slowly to reach 2,000 inhabitants at the end of the Empire.

What was the point of creating the Bank of France?

The institution was created on January 18, 1800, at the request of several bankers supported by State Councilor Cretet. It was then a bank of issue like any other and its main shareholders were the First Consul, the Murat family, and most of those close to Bonaparte. The law of April 14, 1803, gave the Bank of France the monopoly on issuing notes payable to bearers and banknotes. Thus, the head of state can continue his centralizing policy, fully control finances, prevent inflation, and finance his army as he wishes.

Did the Emperor ruin France?

If, during the first years of the Empire, the state budget was in a more or less stable balance, the deficit widened and became high at the end of the reign. Military expenses are an increasing burden on the budget and unpaid expenses as of April 1, 1814 amount to 503 million francs. The debts amount to more than 700 million francs. The Treaty of Paris of November 1815 also required France to pay this same sum of 700 million francs. But relying on healthy structures, the Restoration will manage to absorb the deficit in just a few years.

How did Napoleon view peasants?

At the beginning of the 19th century, France remained an essentially rural country. Nearly two-thirds of the population belongs to the peasant world. Napoleon always loved agriculture, which he placed “in the first place among the useful arts”. He also noticed, during the battles, the endurance and bravery of the peasants, accustomed to hard work in the fields. From Beugnot in Normandy to Thibaudeau in Bouches-du-Rhône, prefects encourage the exploitation of land, slowing down the rural exodus towards industries.

What industries did he favor besides the war industry?

Around Lille, Rouen, and Mulhouse, a cutting-edge cotton industry developed which supplied the immense market of the Grand Empire. In Normandy and Paris, Richard-Lenoir's cotton spinning and weaving workshops are particularly dynamic. Christophe Oberkampf's factories, which produce toiles de Jouy, make a profit of one and a half million francs. Minister Chaptal himself owns a sulfuric and hydrochloric acid factory near Montpellier. He encouraged the modernization of the chemical industry in Paris and Marseille. He concentrates his efforts in particular on the production of artificial soda and soap.

The communicator

How did Napoleon commission the paintings that depict him?

Having always pursued a very active policy in the field of the arts, the Emperor knows very precisely how he wishes to be represented. Artists must participate in the glorification and legitimization of the Emperor as much as the Empire. They thus contributed to the implementation of propaganda desired by Napoleon.

Why did you choose the eagle as your imperial symbol?

Napoleon hesitates between several animals. He immediately dismisses the rooster, too closely linked to ancient Gaul and a barnyard animal that he considers ridiculous. Which emblem to choose? The elephant, the eagle, or the lion? He leaned towards the latter and, immediately, the state councilors adopted the “lion at rest on an azure field”. But the Emperor changed his mind and ordered the lion to be replaced by an eagle with outstretched wings, both a symbol of Imperial Rome and the Carolingian Empire.

What role did Vivant Denon play with Napoleon?

After participating in the Egyptian expedition, Dominique-Vivant Denon was appointed director of the Central Museum of Arts, the future Napoleon Museum (our current Louvre), by the First Consul. Most museums and artistic factories are placed under his authority. Thus, he advised Napoleon in the choice of artists to represent him and magnify his reign. The painters will know how, through images, to nourish the Napoleonic legend.

Does the Emperor control the press?

Napoleon believes that “the right to print is not among the number of natural rights” and asserts: “If I let the press go free, I will not stay in power for three months. » Based on this principle, no one other than the government has the right to address the country, the Moniteur Universel and the Gazette de France being entirely controlled by the State. A decree of February 5, 1810, a veritable law of censorship, regulated the printing press and bookstores.

What is the most similar portrait of Napoleon?

There are hundreds of representations of the Emperor. Yet he rarely posed for artists, except for Gros and David during the First Italian Campaign. The most famous remains the one where he is represented, in 1812, at his office in the Tuileries. And contemporaries were also marked by the similar statues of Chinard, Houdon, and, later, that of Rude, entitled Napoleon awakening to immortality.

How did Napoleon exploit the victory at Austerlitz?

On December 2, 1805, a year after his coronation, he routed an Austro-Russian army following a maneuver that would become a textbook case. He claims that his strategy was established several days before and that everything went according to plan, appearing like a genius strategist. However, several military historians such as Jacques Garnier have demonstrated: that Napoleon did not plan anything and, if his right wing is bare, it is simply because Davout's corps took time to arrive. But Napoleon knows how to adapt to circumstances and manages to see the benefit he can derive from the attack on his weak point by opposing troops.

Has he been depicted often, outside of paintings or sculptures?

Napoleon is perhaps the most painted historical figure in the world. In France, for two centuries, his image and name have been used almost everywhere: alcohol, cigars, clothing, candy, school textbooks, and even Camembert! Not a single country has a stamp bearing the image of the Emperor, from Cuba to the United Arab Emirates via Chad or Moldova.

100

Have documents from the Napoleonic era been preserved?

The archives from this period are among the most important, both in the National Archives and in the Military Archives. The documents of the Imperial Secretariat of State and Napoleon's cabinet (subseries AF IV), for example, occupy 348 linear m on the shelves. At the Defense Historical Service, most of the correspondence of marshals, generals, and often even unit leaders is preserved. An impressive quantity of officers’ personal or pension files can also be consulted. Only some documents from the Russian campaign have disappeared (mostly destroyed), but those captured by the Russians were returned to France very recently.

101

What is the best film about Napoleon?

Jean Tulard has identified more than five hundred productions where the Emperor is directly mentioned, half of which where he appears in the spotlight. And if we take the entire era, more than a thousand films can be counted! As early as 1895, Louis Lumière staged Napoleon's meeting with the Pope at Fontainebleau. Then, many actors played him, from Albert Dieudonné to Philippe Torreton, including Barrault, Brando, Mondy, Pellegrin, and Steiger. The masterpiece undoubtedly remains Abel Gance's Napoléon, dating from 1927. The complete silent version lasted seven hours and twenty-seven minutes; then, with the arrival of the talkie, the work was reworked and reduced to five hours in 1934. The other major film was Waterloo made in 1970 by Sergei Bondarchuk, which benefited from the 120,000 soldiers of the Army red for its reenactment scenes.

101 Truths About Napoleon

Recent Posts

Comments