The United Departments were created in 1795 following the annexation of the Austrian Netherlands and the principality of Liège. The spirit that reigns there perfectly reveals the reactions that accompany the various events linked to the power exercised by Bonaparte.
Nine in number (Deux-Nèthes, Dyle, Escaut, Forêts, Jemmapes, Lys, Meuse-Inférieure, Ourthe, Sambre-et-Meuse), they are distributed in four military divisions: the 24th for four of them (Deux -Nèthes, Dyle, Escaut, Lys) and the 25th for three others (Meuse-Inférieure, Ourthe, Sambre-et-Meuse). Lys, with Brussels as its capital, is integrated into the 16th military division (residence of commanders in Lille), while Luxembourg, Department of Forests, is part of the 3rd military division with Moselle having Metz as its residence.
In 1798, the first insurrections arose. Their origins are not only conscription, which was very unpopular but also anti-Catholic laws often applied without discernment. From October to December 1798, the "Peasants' War" mobilized up to 25,000 men to put an end to it. The toll will be heavy: between 5,000 and 5,600 peasant deaths, and between 300 and 400 executions. In neighboring Luxembourg, the insurrection lasted until May 1799.
A concern for appeasement
At the end of January 1800, in the 3rd military division, “public spirit is bad in the Moselle and the Forests. The central administration of Moselle is very ill-intentioned against the system adopted since 18 Brumaire. […] The secondary administrations […] also show a very bad spirit. Far from supporting the zeal of the gendarmerie against deserting conscripts, it only seeks to popularize itself by making this zeal odious. Also, all the different deserters from the different corps of the army found asylum in the so-called German cantons of the Moselle. Several gatherings have just taken place in these cantons around the Saarland. The gendarmerie was attacked, the freedom tree was cut down in the cantons of Rohrbach and several others. General Chateauneuf-Randon (1) requests the ability to put a few communes under siege; without this measure, tranquility could be compromised for a long time. » (2)
January 29, 1800, Carteaux (3), commander of the 25th military division, described the situation in his division as follows: “Public and good spirit in the departments of Sambre-et-Meuse and Meuse-Inférieure. Tranquility reigns everywhere, contributions only come in with the help of the armed forces. » January 30. Lombard, an orderly officer in the 3rd military division, reports that “the public spirit is good, the inhabitants are very peaceful, the soldier behaves perfectly […]”. A situation partially denied by Châteauneuf-Randon's report to the Minister of War on February 18: "The influence of priests in the Forestry Department only tends to increase the hatred of rural inhabitants against the republican system. We await with the greatest impatience the organization of the new authorities; those that exist today have neither the confidence nor the esteem of good citizens. »
On February 23, Lombard, in a new report stated: “Tranquility reigns everywhere. The troop behaves well. All classes give themselves over to pleasures with more eagerness and abandon than they had done since the beginning of the Revolution. This is proof of the confidence that the government inspires. » On March 3, Péduchelle (4), commanding the 3rd military division, wrote: “Tranquility reigns everywhere, but the carelessness or bad will of the civil authorities leaves most of the laws without execution. Public spirit is quite good […]. »
The trust placed in Bonaparte
In the undated report to the Minister of War for the period from January 21 to February 19, 1800, appears that of the commander of the 24th division, General Bonnard, who emphasizes that “the public spirit is bad. However, the new government inspires some confidence. Military service is going well, but an increase in troops is essential, especially in the cavalry. » On February 2, General Micas (5), commanding the 25th military division, reported to Berthier, Minister of War: “Public spirit has improved significantly since the release of the priests. It is generally good in the Ourthe, tranquility reigns everywhere; contributions only come in to help the armed forces which has much more success in the department of Ourthe than in that of Sambre-et-Meuse and Meuse-Inférieure; In this division, there are 42,000 troops whose conduct is excellent. » Three days later, he specified: “Public spirit is improving in the department of Sambre-et-Meuse […]; it is zero in the Meuse-Inférieure, it is quite good in the Ourthe except the cantons of Cid, Limbourg and Luxembourg. […] Contributions only go to the aid of the armed forces. »
On February 5, Bonnard wrote for Berthier: “Public spirit is generally bad in this division [the 24th], however confidence in the new government is beginning to arise since the churches are open. The civil authorities are poorly composed. […] Bands of thieves continue to make incursions into Deux-Nèthes from time to time […]. » On February 6, Chateauneuf-Randon reported: “Public tranquility, which had been disturbed in some cantons of Moselle, is beginning to be restored by the measures that have been taken. The caliber weapons were taken away from the inhabitants, and the deserters returned to the headquarters from where they were sent to Strasbourg. Some instigators of the revolt were arrested following denunciations from the inhabitants themselves. »
On February 8, the commander of the 3rd military division explained: “The spirit of the civil authorities is still very bad, but their influence is paralyzed by that exercised by military authority. Tranquility is restored in the rural cantons where it had been disturbed by the gathering of deserters. The conscripts come in crowds to join their flags. More than 500 have already been sent to Strasbourg. It would be useful to modify the laws on conscription and to establish better-graduated penalties. Perhaps we should also establish exemptions in favor of fathers whose children are all requisitioned or conscripted. » (6)
At the 24th military division, it is not the same. This is what General Bonnard (7) clarified on February 12, from Ghent: “The public spirit is generally bad, especially in Dyle and Deux-Nèthes (8), there is only fear inspired by the presence of armed force which could maintain tranquility and enforce impositions; the tree of freedom was cut down in Beselare (Lys) and Cobeghem (Dyle). These two municipalities were declared in a state of siege […].” On February 18, Bonnard then reported: “Confidence in the new government is increasing day by day. The inhabitants are very fanatical but subject to the laws. The recklessness of the constituted authorities is at its height. All government orders against deserters remain unexecuted. »
Significant disparities
The poor state of public sentiment in Dyle and Deux-Nèthes is further confirmed in the report that Bonnard addressed on February 22 to the Minister of War: "[...] The inhabitants [of the departments of Dyle and des Deux-Nèthes] had at first been flattered by the new order of things because they imagined that sworn priests and emigrants would be allowed to return and that the laws on conscription would not be enforced, and that Belgium would have specific legislation (9). But their faded hope gives rise to their discontent. Fanaticism is at its height here, these people do not like any kind of government. Bands of bandits continue to desolate the former Campine [...]. » (10)
It is quite different with General Micas, in Liège (25th military division): “Public spirit is quite good in the departments of Ourthe and Sambre-et-Meuse, it is zero in Meuse-Inférieure where the inhabitant, entirely stuck to his old habits, only obeys the laws out of fear. Contributions only come in to help the armed forces which has more success in the department of Ourthe than in the others. »
General Micas' successor, General Carteaux, wrote on February 22: “Public spirit is generally good in the Ourthe except the cantons of Luxembourg and Limburg. It is zero in Meuse-Inférieure, it is improving in the department of Sambre-et-Meuse since the enlargement of priests […]. »
On February 25, 1800, it was the return of the Mardi Gras celebration, banned since the start of the Revolution, with a masked ball at the Opera. Three days later, the (unnamed) orderly officer of the 3rd division emphasized: “Public spirit is good as is that of the troops. Confidence in government grows stronger every day. The citizens of this department who suffered from revolutionary excesses for so long seem to have forgotten them. Societies are recovering and cheerfulness is reborn with confidence. » That same day, Bonnard wrote in his report: “The public mind is generally inclined to carelessness. Contributions only go to aid the armed forces. The bands of brigands have shown themselves with more audacity in the old Kempen since the departure of the troops. » And on the 29th, he added: “Confidence in the new government is increasing day by day. The opening of churches and the return to practice of former priests continue to cause general satisfaction […]. We are impatiently awaiting the organization of the new authorities. Civil servants almost always put their will over the law and are not ashamed to tamper with their functions. They receive money to leave deserters peacefully in their homes, to issue exemptions and passports. »
On March 4, at the 24th Division, it was stated: “The public spirit of this division is always inclined to carelessness; the government however is starting to get a little more confidence than before. » And three days later, in the 3rd division, “the vast majority of the inhabitants of this division are attached to the government, but the authorities are very poorly composed. Tranquility reigns everywhere […]. » on the 17th, again to the 24th division: “The sworn priests exercise a disastrous influence in the departments of this division; if tranquility continues to reign it is to fear and not to confidence that we are indebted. In the Scheldt department, malicious people roam the canton of Leiden distributing money to carry out an insurrection […]. » Finally, on April 16, it was stated: “Public spirit is generally bad in Dyle; the receipt of contributions and the departure of conscripts can only be obtained by force; sworn priests have a great influence there. In the department of Jemmapes, sworn priests have already brought the law on freedom of religion into contempt; bells are rung in several cantons; […]. Public spirit is still very wavering in Lys and very easy to corrupt. However, tranquility reigns in all these departments where the inhabitants in general continue to flatter themselves that they will be governed by particular laws, and even that they will not remain united with France for long. » (11) On this same date, Carteaux, commanding the 25th military division, wrote that “public spirit is zero in Meuse-Inférieure, but generally good in Ourthe, gentle but a little fanatical in Sambre-et-Meuse […]. »
After the victory of Marengo
The public spirit in the “united departments” was not changed despite the victory of Marengo which consolidated the bases of the Consulate and mainly Bonaparte. In the 3rd division, “public spirit is good and tranquility perfect. The prefects and sub-prefects are successfully responsible for the execution of the laws. Same thing in the 24th division, where, despite a downside ("contributions do not come in and often laws are only enforced using coercion; priests continue to exercise a dangerous influence"), "tranquility reigns despite the bad state of mind of the inhabitants of the departments of this division” (Dyle, Escaut, Jemmapes, Deux-Nèthes), wrote Bonnard on June 25 and 30.
On July 5, the commander of the 24th deplored that “public spirit is not improving in the departments of this division. The priests continue to preach disobedience to the laws, to anger hearts, and incite the inhabitants to revolt. There was here at Aalter, Scheldt, a gathering of men armed with pitchforks, sticks, and other such instruments; the gendarmerie summoned the rebels to dissipate; When they refused, force was used and one of the crowd was injured by a gunshot. »
The Reaction to the Peace of Lunéville
In three of the four military divisions concerned, there is no mention of this important agreement. All are focused on mobilizing troops for the new campaign. Only Bonnard sent a report (undated) saying: “The public spirit of the departments of which this division is composed seems to be improving every day mainly since the peace treaty which established the definitive union of Belgium with France. […]”
The only information regarding public spirit in this period comes from General Roget (12), acting commander of the 25th military division: “Public spirit is still the same, without improvement. The tranquility was not disturbed during this decade. The contributions are coming in quite well. »
On the other hand, on August 17, the commander of the 24th division described a situation that was not the best: “The political situation in the department still presents the same appearance. The public spirit is the same there and tranquility generally reigns despite the continual actions of rebellious priests who never cease to decry the government […]. » On September 3, Bonnard, his commander, wrote to Berthier: “No event has disturbed the tranquility enjoyed by the departments of this division. The public spirit is the same there. The rebellious priests continue the clandestine exercise of their religious functions and, through secret tactics, maintain the alienation of the inhabitants from the government […]. »
In the 25th division, “the situation in the departments of Ourthe, Meuse-Inférieure, and Sambre-et-Meuse making up this division, considered in political terms, is quite calm. The impositions come in fairly accurately but the public spirit makes no progress, influenced by fanaticism and priests. The inhabitant seems repugnant to our principles and our customs. The majority of civil authorities in the countryside, justices of the peace or mayors, fulfill their functions poorly or not at all and, on the contrary, appear to have ill will. The laws on conscription and desertion are only weakly and negligently executed. » And, on October 19, “the public spirit [of the 24th military division] did not improve. It even seems that the inhabitants' estrangement from the Republic has become more pronounced since the signing of the preliminaries of peace with England. They cannot yet believe in their reunion with France, and set the meeting of the Congress of Amiens as the time when we must withdraw; such is the opinion accredited even in the class above the vulgar. »
Peace of Amiens and Concordat
Strangely, the signing of this important treaty which is the Peace of Amiens does not provoke any comments or reactions from the various commanders of the military divisions concerned. Reports are mainly made around the problem of food or pay. However, priests are still a concern in the 25th division: “Following remarks he had made against the government, the name Aubry, a rebellious priest, was arrested […]. The rebellious priests continue to foment unrest and worry the minds, most of the mayors directed and influenced by their fanatical speeches, fulfill their functions with negligence and partiality […]", wrote Belliard, commander of the 25th division on March 21, 1802 "[…] The re-establishment of worship has caused the greatest joy throughout this division [...]", reported General Vandamme (13), the new commander of the 16th military division, on May 21.
On June 2, General Loison (14) stated in his report to the Minister of War: “The public spirit of this department (Meuse-Inférieure) shows no change. Tranquility reigns, and contributions are coming in. The public spirit of the department of Sambre-et-Meuse appears to have improved to a certain degree since the publication of the Concordat. Tranquility reigns in the Ourthe department, contributions are coming in and public spirit is generally quite good there. »
Bonaparte becomes consul for life
No reaction to this change, neither in the 3rd nor in the 16th division, as well as in the 25th. “The life consulate of General Bonaparte has been proclaimed” reports General Belliard (15), commander of the 24th military division. Loison reported, in the week of October 8 to 14, 1802 that “tranquility reigns in the division. […] Public spirit appears to be improving in the department of Sambre-et-Meuse since the publication of the Concordat. […] »
In 1803, the mayors, in the 16th division, were still a problem, as its acting commander, General Girard (16), wrote in his report of January 3 and 4: "The neglect of most mayors, as regards the raising of conscripts, is always the same. However, the supervision and zeal of the recruiting councils are such that we can hope that this operation [the raising of conscripts] will be completed before long. […] »
The commander of the 25th military division, General Loison, wrote in his report covering the period from April 15 to 19, to the Minister of War, that “the public spirit in the department of Meuse-Inférieure is still the same, the tranquility is not disturbed there. That of the department of Sambre-et-Meuse seems to be improving. Since the publication of the Concordat, the inhabitants have expressed great satisfaction at the reestablishment of worship. […]”
“The division enjoys perfect tranquility. The services are well administered […]” he wrote in his report for the period May 20-26.
General Girard, in his report covering the period May 28-June 2 writes: “The indignation which the conduct of the English government generally causes makes the national spirit more energetic. Commerce is distressed by the resumption of hostilities, but it bears with courage the losses it experiences […]. »
The Proclamation of the Empire
On 20 Floréal Year XII (May 10, 1804), eight days before the proclamation, General Legrand (17), interim commander of the 25th military division, wrote: “[…] The divisions of which there is no mention in this relationship and those in which nothing new has happened enjoy the greatest tranquility. All express the wish that Napoleon Bonaparte be proclaimed emperor and that the imperial dignity be hereditary in his family. »
(1) Alexandre-Paul Guérin de Chateauneuf-Randon, Marquis de Joyeuse (1757-1827) was, in 1792, lieutenant-colonel of cavalry. Brigadier general in 1793, member of the Committee of Public Safety (October 1-December 1, 1794), in 1796 he commanded the 9th and 10th military divisions, then the 5th military division (August 16, 1798). On September 1, 1799, he took command of the 3rd military division.
(2) François Houdecek, Michel Roucaud, The public spirit under the Consulate. Reports from the Minister of War to the First Consul, Le Cerf, 2019, p. 38.
(3) Jean-François Carteaux (1751-1813) commanded the 25th military division on January 14, 1800, then was employed in the Army of Batavia where he commanded the 2nd division (July 23).
(4) Guillaume Lepéduchelle known as Péduchelle (1740-1824) has been employed in the 3rd military division since April 13, 1796. In 1801, he ceased his functions, having been discharged by decree of the Consuls (March 29, 1800).
(5) Jean-François Micas (1749-1825) began his military career as a geographer (1770-1791), commanded the four Belgian departments in Luxembourg (1795), then in Liège the four united departments assigned to the army of Sambre- and-Meuse (1796). In 1797, he was appointed commander of the 25th military division in Liège, until 1801.
(6) Emphasis added.
(7) Ennemond Count Bonnard (1756-1819) began his career with the 6th artillery regiment (1775), and participated in the battle of Fleurus (June 26, 1794), In 1797, he commanded the Place de Luxembourg, then the 24th division military (September 13). In 1799, he commanded the 2nd military division, then the 24th, then the 24th, 25th, and 26th (August 1800).
(8) These are the departments which are concerned by the events of 1798.
(9) Emphasis added.
(10) Campine
(11) Emphasis added.
(12) Mansuy-Dominique Roget, Baron de Belloguet (1760-1832) has commanded the 25th military division since January 14, 1801.
(13) Dominique-Joseph-René Vandamme, Count of Unsebourg (1770-1830) was in the Army of the Rhine in 1800. On September 19, 1801, he was appointed head of the 16th military division.
(14) Louis-Henri Count Loison (1771-1816) commanded the 25th military division since September 19, 1801.
(15) Auguste-Daniel, Count Belliard served in 1796 in Italy then in 1798 in Egypt. On December 18, 1801, he was appointed commander of the 24th military division and remained in this position until 1805.
(16) Jean-Pierre Girard, known as Vieux (1750-1811), was born in Geneva and campaigned in Germany until 1798, when he commanded the department of Lake Geneva of which his hometown was the capital, then in 1799, employed in the 16th military division from 1801 to 1805, moved to the 10th military division. Acting commander of the 16th military division (September 17-November 19, 1805).
(17) Étienne Legrand, Baron de Mercey (1755-1828) was employed in the Italian army in 1798. In January 1800, he commanded the Var department within the 8th military division, then commanded the Ourthe department (September 23, 1802). From September 21, 1803, to December 30, 1804, he temporarily commanded the 25th military division.
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