From Napoleon magazine n°110:
"With audacity, one can undertake anything, but one cannot do everything." This thought attributed to Napoleon applies perfectly to the organization of the Paris fire service.
Damien Grenèche / historian
Since the 18th century, the capital has been protected by a corporation of pump guards (royal ordinance of February 23, 1716). The initiative was taken by François de Moriès du Périer. A member of Molière's troupe, he obtained the king's privilege to manufacture the first French fire pumps (1699), a device he had seen during his tours in the Flanders. This showman became the first director of the Paris firefighters. Most of its members were artisans in the building trades, such as masons, carpenters, and roofers. Men who appeared skilled and did not experience vertigo were helpful in the high-flying fight against flames.
However, since 1792, this corporation has been seeking militarization: to establish a code of discipline and to be barracked. The signing and reading of a petition testify to the prevailing discomfort. Until 1801, several projects followed one another without finding a happy outcome. The rivalry between the two prefects did not allow this transformation to be correctly carried out. Problems persisted, the situation deteriorated, and the firefighters were victims of this disorder.
The Austrian marriage
Napoleon asserted himself as a grand master of continental Europe. Recently victorious over the Fourth Coalition (1806-1807) and the powerful Prussian army, he imposed his political system (through the Treaties of Tilsit) and his family at the head of the allied monarchies. An alliance was formed with the Austrian enemy. This political choice was motivated by the hesitations of Alexander, Tsar of Russia (2). All that remained for him was to find a dynasty and obtain a legitimate heir that Josephine could not give him. However, his dreams of peace seemed utopian. A tragedy in 1810 inaugurated a profound change.
On the occasion of the union of the Emperor and his new wife Marie-Louise of Austria (daughter of Archduke Francis II), a grand ball was organized on July 1st in the Hôtel de Montesson, the residence of the ambassador, Prince Charles-Philippe de Schwarzenberg. The architect Bénard undertook considerable work in just a few days to welcome the two thousand guests as they should. In the garden, he built an immense reception hall, mostly made of wood. Bituminous canvas was installed to keep the guests sheltered from the rain. Paintings were coated with alcohol to allow them to dry quickly. The decoration was luxurious and opulent: silk curtains, tapestries, and solid bronze chandeliers carrying dozens of candles each. It was about showing France's wealth.
Ball evening at the ambassador's
All the guests were European nobles and aristocrats presenting in their finest attire and jewelry. The ladies wore sumptuous gowns and jewels; the men wore civilian clothing and full military uniforms. The Russian ambassador, Prince Kurakin, wore diamond epaulets on this occasion. While everything was conducive to a perfect evening, it should nevertheless be recalled that safety rules were almost non-existent, the hall was furnished with highly flammable materials, and the six pump guards were kept away from the festivities. Without an officer at their head, they were sidelined in a room on the nearby Rue de la Victoire, and the two pumps were placed in the courtyard of Count Regnault's hotel.
Removed from the epicenter of the ball, they helplessly witnessed the catastrophe. Indeed, around 11 p.m., a strong wind blew over Paris. A chandelier was carried away and shattered against a muslin curtain. The fire quickly caught on and spread to the ceiling, turning it into a fiery sky. In less than two minutes, the whole ballroom burned down. The speed of the flames surprised everyone. As in most of these situations, panic seized the guests. They panicked, crowded together, and trampled each other, regardless of their social status. In total disorder, they exited through all possible exits. The firefighters were hindered in their maneuvers, "[they] were overturned and unable to enter" (3). The historian Léonce Grasilier perfectly describes this tragedy (4). Napoleon, the witness to the events, painfully witnessed these disastrous scenes and, above all, a total lack of organization in the relief chain. While Marie-Louise narrowly escaped death, he was scandalized, the unmatched warlord. "Make my dissatisfaction known to the firefighters' corps" (5). One conclusion is clear: the Emperor's security is no longer assured, and Paris urgently needs reform of its fire-fighting service.
The outcome of the investigations:
Napoleon orders an inquiry entrusted to Count de Montalivet, then Minister of the Interior. From July 2nd to 4th, interrogations are conducted. The pump guard corps and the actors of this disaster are questioned. The men on the scene are accused of being drunk, slow, and incompetent. As if that were not enough, the absences of Police Prefect Dubois and Commander Ledoux (chief of the firefighters) are confirmed. Both of them, taking advantage of a weekend in the countryside, had left Paris earlier in the day. Thus, without a prefect, there is no law enforcement; without a commander, there is no direction for relief efforts.
The accusations are serious, and the investigation reveals a series of faults, each as blameworthy as the next. On the one hand, these sow discord among the authorities. On the other hand, they mainly reveal the catastrophic situation of the pump guards. "[They], for the most part, were in the same state as before 1801" (6). Regulations are not enforced, and recruitment and supervision are neglected. They are poorly trained and undisciplined. This investigation also reveals fraudulent practices such as replacing under the guise of receiving the bonus.
Annoyed to learn of these malpractices and having no other choice, the Emperor decrees the complete reorganization of the fire service and the dismissal of Ledoux and Dubois on July 10th (7). Furthermore, on the same day, by decree, he establishes a unique unit: "A night guard in all imperial residences, composed of Engineers of the Genie and called Chambre de veille." Responsible for the imperial family's security, it accompanies Napoleon during his travels. This sort of close guard is absorbed into the Imperial Guard by a new decree on July 16th (8).
Creation and organization:
Now, under the orders of the Genie ofppers, the Paris area, a company of sa responsible "for the pump service," forms the first unit of military firefighters in history. They wear the uniform of sappers, but they sport the brass helmet of the firefighter. To command this company of sapper-firefighters of the Imperial Guard (which existed until the end of the First Empire in 1815), three seasoned officers are commissioned: Captain Provence (fifteen campaigns), Lieutenant Gauchez (eighteen campaigns), and Lieutenant Duguet (eight campaigns). They are trained in firefighting techniques and receive specific instructions on pump use.
Although the association may not seem obvious, these soldiers find themselves invested in the "mission of firefighter," and some resist abandoning their rifles and maneuvering non-military equipment. However, they do not replace the pump guards; they coexist, with some serving exclusively the imperial household and others serving the Police Prefect. They are notably found ensuring the security of the lavish baptism of the Eaglet (June 9, 1811) at Notre Dame Cathedral (9) and during the Russian campaign (1812) (10). These sapper-firefighters accompany the Emperor to Moscow. They try as best as possible to contain the deliberate fire in the Tsar's capital and cannot prevent the retreat.
A Balloon in Paris
Meanwhile, in Paris, a transformation is underway. The new Prefect of Police, Pasquier, decides to confer a military character upon the capital's firefighters. Napoleon approves this decision. Pleased with the services provided by his company, he deems it wise to emulate this unique model. The imperial decree of September 18, 1811, dismisses the civilian body of pump guards and replaces it with a battalion of firefighter sappers (11). This militarization is expressed through the status of the term "firefighter sapper" specific to the capital's firefighters (12), submission to military laws (article 19), and the establishment of an inspection by the Engineering Directorate (article 15). The barracks affirm this character through the settlement of men and thus their availability. It fully participates in militarization because, in this space, firefighters are subject to the rigor of military discipline. Four buildings, maintained by the city's finances (article 30), are assigned to them. The first company settles on Nazareth Street, the second on Culture Sainte-Catherine Street (13), the third on Napoleon Street, and the fourth on Saint-Jacques Street (article 32). It is essential to understand that these locations are old and unsuitable for the function of firefighters (14). Fortunately, these sappers are formidable workers and refurbish their barracks.
Regarding their uniforms, they are those of the Guard sappers. Furthermore, they possess another attribute of the soldier: the rifle-bayonet (article 17). This armament implies special training and control (article 38). A hierarchy is established through strict adherence to ranks to address previous perceived conflicts in the command of pump guards. Now, a battalion commander presides over the staff composed of 13 officers (article 4). Moreover, the organizational structure is standardized. The four companies include one captain, one lieutenant, one sergeant major, four sergeants, one corporal-foreman, ten corporals, 122 sappers, and two drummers (article 5). However, this military terminology of ranks does not certify that all firefighters are military personnel. Indeed, recruitment precepts do not present a strict and unilateral resolution since there is mention of "voluntary enlistments" (article 18). Thus, the battalion is formed by a heterogeneous workforce. On the one hand, the former pump guards are the first to opt for a change of employment; however, these re-enlistments are subject to examinations and linked to soldier engagement. On the other hand, positions are open to all soldiers of the Army and citizens released from military service, recognized by a commission. Furthermore, militarization struggles to materialize because, in 1812, a review of the personnel demonstrates that only 42% of firefighters were present at roll call. The former pump guards are retained, and conscripts are incorporated to compensate for this deficit. For the rest, officers are appointed, if not designated. The choice falls on men with a long career under the colors (article 20) and on men with experience in leadership capable of supervising this young battalion composed of civilian and military elements.
Within the other troops
Apart from its military status, the battalion is integral to law enforcement. Under the control of the Prefect of Police (15) (article 3), it is invested with a particular and somewhat unknown role: security in Paris and its suburbs. It has been learned that it is responsible for providing patrols to monitor the barriers of the wall of the farmers-general surrounding Paris, notably (articles 33 to 35). This first period (1811-1813) it ended with the dismissal of battalion commander Delalanne, who experienced significant difficulties in leading a poorly equipped and understaffed troop, and the appointment of battalion commander de Plazannet on January 1, 1814.
While the decree of September 18 created a military organization outside the army, the November 7, 1821 ordinance attempts to remedy this: "[The Battalion] will henceforth be counted as part of the army." This means the firefighter sappers are integrated into the Army, whose theoretical strength in peacetime is fixed at 240,000 soldiers by the "Gouvion Saint-Cyr" law of March 10, 1818.
Preparations and actions
Militarization is undoubtedly one of the pillars of the identity construction of the Parisian firefighter sappers. Nevertheless, a second evolution contributes to it: the introduction of gymnastics (16). This stems from a conjuncture (17). First, the arrival of Francisco Amoros, a Spanish dignitary, in France. After founding his first gymnasium in 1818 in Paris, he demonstrated that his Art, which he defines as "the reasoned science of our movements" (18), allows for the building of a new man, trained and shaped by the assimilation of values such as courage and strength. A science that applies perfectly to the warlike universe where military instruction is losing its bearings. Napoleon's "Great Army" is renowned for its great tactical marches in a short time (19).
The physical preparation of the soldier is, therefore, essential. It must allow him to resist fatigue better. The same goes for the Parisian firefighter. Often forced into long runs, at any time of the day, in all weather conditions, he must also operate in a highly hostile environment in the heat of toxic fumes and blazes. He often emerges soaked from his firefighting actions. Bodies are subjected to harsh tests. These activities are not without risk. Many contract lung diseases and illnesses or leave the service with injured limbs or organs. Some lose their lives, such as firefighter Lescœur, the first of a long list of "fire deaths." On April 22, 1816, he finds himself buried under the rubble of a wax fabric factory on Rue du Faubourg Saint-Antoine (20).
A Paradoxical Situation
Furthermore, the barracking of the men breeds a certain moral weariness. Interventions are pretty rare, and chores punctuate the days. Confined for several days in a closed space, day and night, where only outings to fight fires offer distraction, firefighters become bored and seek diversion. This quest drives some of them to "escape" and clandestinely leave the barracks to join the taverns and women. Seeking to end these unorthodox practices, de Plazannet initiates a meeting with Amoros. During this encounter, they agree to introduce the firefighters to gymnastic practice. Acting as accurate beta testers for the Army, they testify to significant results after several weeks of teaching: the men exhibit athletic form and develop great agility.
Their motor skills, now evolving towards quadrupedalism, make them proficient rescuers. Acrobatics and other daring movements are permitted and supervised. These movements aim to transform them into "lean cats" capable of moving quickly on the balconies and rooftops of Paris. The spectacular dimension of rescue is introduced. Coupled with the initial attempts to draft a general intervention doctrine (21) called the "general operations maneuver," the Parisian firefighter constructs his uniqueness. He can handle the hook ladder, a rescue apparatus introduced in 1824, symbolizing a professional tradition because he is a seasoned gymnast.
The Barracks
This teaching tends to become generalized within the military institution. Regiments in the Paris region request Amoros to train their men. Faced with this increase, the Battalion had no choice but to establish structures within its barracks as early as 1820. Thus, exercise can occur outside Amoros's "normal gym" and, above all, with greater frequency. Under the direction of his former students, the other firefighters conduct exercise sessions by manipulating "machines," gymnastics apparatus such as the horizontal bar. They climb various ladders and hoist themselves using ropes. Muscular arm strength is engaged. Popularized and propagated throughout the Battalion, this practice concerns the former pump guards still in service and the soldiers from regiments or conscription. It transforms minds and shapes bodies.
Initially established as a recreational activity, gymnastics is a fundamental tool and stake for firefighters. Through his influence, Amoros shapes more agile, physically and morally stronger men, making them more useful. Through Art, he has forged the "Paris firefighter" mindset animated by courage. These exercises act on resistance and tenacity. These abilities contribute to forming the heroic image associated with firefighters in the 19th century, an image that persists. The practice of gymnastics in the Parisian firefighters' unique milieu has enabled the corps's professionalization and the construction of an identity and elite.
(1) J.-L. Gaudy, Maxims and Thoughts of Napoleon, Paris, A. Barbier, 1838, n°295.
(2) Jacques-Olivier Boudon, France and Napoleon's Europe, Armand Colin, 2006.
(3) National Archives. AF/IV/1290. Ledoux's Report of July 3, 1810.
(4) Léonce Grasilier, The Fire at the Austrian Embassy Hotel, Rue du Mont-Blanc, Alençon, Alençonnaise Printing House, 1918.
(5) NA. AF/IV/1290. Correspondence of July 5, 1810.
(6) NA. AF/IV/1290. Correspondence from Montalivet addressed to Napoleon, July 11, 1810.
(7) NA. AF/IV/464. Decrees of the Consuls and Imperial Decrees.
(8) NA. O2/1223. First Empire. Military Household.
(9) David Chanteranne, Napoleon and the Grand Imperial Ceremonies, Cabédita Editions, 2018.
(10) Anka Muhlstein, Napoleon in Moscow, Odile Jacob, 2007.
(11) Bulletin of Laws No. 392.
(12) Captain Cherrière, On the Origin of the Term Firefighters, Paris, Regimental Printing Press, 1912.
(13) Only this barracks remains today. As the command post of the 11th company, it is the oldest active firefighters' barracks in the world!
(14) NA. F7/4340. Barracking of Paris firefighters (1811).
(15) This particularity is still relevant. The Paris Fire Brigade is a military unit placed under the authority of the Prefect of Police.
(16) All these reflections are part of academic work conducted since 2019 under the supervision of Mrs. Julie d'Andurain. The doctoral thesis in history is entitled: "Paris Firefighters, 1811-1966. Construction of an Elite and Singular Identity."
(17) Damien Grenèche, "Sport among Paris Firefighters, a History of Body and Mind," Allô dix-huit, No. 757, 2019, pp. 72-73.
(18) Francisco Amoros, New Complete Manual of Physical, Gymnastic, and Moral Education, Paris, Roret Editions, 1834.
(19) Martin Motte, The Emperor's Marches, Paris, LBM, 2007.
(20) BSPP Archives. Detailed Records of Fire Deaths.
(21) Jean-Baptiste de Plazannet, Manual of the Firefighter, Ancelin et Pochard Printing Press, 1816.
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